Key Concepts

Argument Explanation
Moral Distinctions are based on Sentiment, not Reason Hume argues that moral distinctions are derived from moral sentiments or feelings, rather than from reason or rational deliberation. He believes that reason alone cannot determine what is morally good or bad, and that our moral judgments ultimately stem from our emotional responses and reactions.
Utility is the Foundation of Morality According to Hume, the foundation of morality is the principle of utility, which states that actions or behaviors are morally good if they contribute to human happiness and well-being, and morally bad if they cause harm or suffering. Hume believed that our moral sentiments are shaped by our assessment of the utility or usefulness of actions.
Benevolence is the Source of Moral Approval Hume argues that the sentiment of benevolence, or the desire to promote the happiness of others, is the primary source of our moral approval or disapproval. We tend to approve of actions and characters that exhibit benevolence and kindness towards others, and disapprove of those that are selfish or harmful.
Justice is an Artificial Virtue Hume distinguishes between natural virtues, which arise from our intrinsic sentiments, and artificial virtues, which are established by human conventions and social institutions. He considers justice to be an artificial virtue, as it is rooted in the need for societal order, property rights, and mutual cooperation, rather than being a natural sentiment.
Moral Judgments are Based on General Rules Hume argues that our moral judgments are based on general rules or principles that we derive from our experience and observation of the consequences of actions. These general rules allow us to make consistent moral judgments and shape our moral sentiments, even in cases where we cannot directly observe the consequences.

Quotes

Chapter Quote
Section I "The hypothesis which we embrace is plain. It maintains that morality is determined by sentiment. It defines virtue to be whatever mental action or quality gives to a spectator the pleasing sentiment of approbation; and vice the contrary."
Section II "The end of all moral speculations is to teach us our duty; and by proper representations of the deformity of vice and beauty of virtue, beget corresponding habits, and engage us to avoid the one and embrace the other."
Section III "In moral deliberations, we must be acquainted beforehand with all the objects and relations we can possibly have any concern with. If any be left unnoticed, there is an error in our discourse; but not in the way of this hypothesis."
Section IV "The merit of benevolence, arising from its utility, is a feeling echoed in every heart, which is influenced by the least ray of humanity. Its effect in society is too sensible not to be felt."
Section V "Equality is the basis of all justice; what can be more equal than man’s mutual protection and assistance?"
Section VI "The sentiments of men often differ with regard to the same object; and sometimes even the same sentiments seem to change their nature, merely by being directed differently."
Section VII "The thoughts of the day are extended to the coming age, with a mixture of generosity and public spirit, which engages us to make these voluntary sacrifices."
Section VIII "When a doubt or difficulty arises in us, the opposing sentiments are easily swallowed up, and forgotten, in the general current of those opinions, which it is found upon questioning and debate."

Contents

Chapter Title Summary
1 Of the General Principles of Morals This chapter introduces the central question of the text: What is the foundation of our judgments of morality? Hume explores the distinction between moral sense theories and rationalist theories of morality.
2 Of Benevolence Hume examines benevolence, arguing that acts of kindness contribute significantly to human happiness and are universally approved, thus forming an essential part of moral judgment.
3 Of Justice Focusing on justice, Hume proposes that rules of justice arise from utility and human conventions, rather than from natural law. He argues that justice is essential for societal stability and mutual benefit.
4 Of Political Society Hume discusses the foundation and purpose of political society, suggesting that government institutions derive their legitimacy from their utility in protecting justice and public interest.
5 Why Utility Pleases This chapter deals with the concept of utility. Hume argues that the usefulness of actions and institutions is a primary source of moral approbation, as it tends to produce pleasure and happiness.
6 Of Qualities Useful to Ourselves Hume explores qualities that are beneficial to the individual, such as prudence, temperance, and industry, demonstrating that these qualities elicit moral approval because they contribute to personal well-being.
7 Of Qualities Immediately Agreeable to Ourselves This chapter examines personal attributes like cheerfulness, wit, and elegance. Hume argues these traits are valued because they provide immediate pleasure and satisfaction to the individual.
8 Of Qualities Immediately Agreeable to Others Hume discusses traits such as affability, politeness, and modesty, which are valued because they make social interaction pleasant and harmonious, enhancing interpersonal relationships.
9 Conclusion In the concluding chapter, Hume synthesizes his arguments, reiterating that moral distinctions are derived from sentiments and the perception of beneficial or harmful consequences, emphasizing the role of utility in moral judgments.
Appendix I Concerning Moral Sentiment Hume elaborates on the nature of moral sentiment, arguing against the rationalist perspective and reinforcing his view that moral judgments are grounded in human emotions and feelings.
Appendix II Of Self-Love This appendix addresses the debate on whether all human actions are motivated by self-love, refuting the notion and defending the existence of genuine benevolence and altruism in human nature.